1.1 Introduction
Theism is commonly defined as the belief in the existence of a supreme being who is all-powerful, all-knowing, and wholly good, and who is actively involved in the affairs of the universe. This conception of God is central to many religious traditions and philosophical systems, where God is regarded as the creator and sustainer of all that exists (Plantinga, 1974: 10). Within this framework, God's attributes of omnipotence, omniscience, and omnibenevolence are seen as foundational to understanding the nature of reality and human existence. However, the presence of evil and suffering in the world poses a significant challenge to this belief, raising critical questions about the coherence and plausibility of theistic claims.
The problem of evil refers to the apparent contradiction between the existence of a benevolent and omnipotent God and the reality of evil in the world. Philosophers have traditionally distinguished between moral evil, which results from human actions such as violence and injustice, and natural evil, which arises from natural occurrences such as earthquakes, diseases, and other disasters. The persistence of both forms of evil continues to generate intense philosophical debate, as it appears to conflict with the notion of a perfectly good and powerful deity (Hick, 1966: 14).
The study also aims to explore the strengths and limitations of various theistic responses, providing a balanced and comprehensive understanding of the issue within both classical and contemporary contexts.
1.2 Background of Study
The background of the study of theism and the problem of evil is deeply rooted in the long history of philosophical and theological reflection on the nature of God and the reality of suffering. Theism, in its classical sense, presents God as omnipotent, omniscient, and omnibenevolent, a being who is both the creator and sustainer of the universe. However, the observable presence of evil and suffering has continually raised questions about how such a God relates to the world. This tension has not only shaped philosophical discourse but has also influenced religious belief, skepticism, and moral reasoning across different historical periods.
According to Alvin Plantinga, theism maintains that God possesses maximal greatness, which includes unlimited power, knowledge, and goodness, and that such a being has created a world that reflects divine purpose (Plantinga, 1974: 10). This conception establishes a framework within which the problem of evil becomes a serious philosophical issue. If God is perfectly good and all-powerful, the continued existence of evil appears to challenge the coherence of this belief. Philosophers have therefore sought to understand whether the presence of evil undermines or can be reconciled with theistic claims.
David Hume reported that the existence of suffering and disorder in the world raises doubts about the traditional attributes of God, particularly divine benevolence and omnipotence (Hume, 1779: 186). In his analysis, the observable world does not seem to align with the expectations of a perfectly good creator, as pain and suffering are widespread and often indiscriminate. Hume's critique represents one of the earliest and most influential articulations of skepticism toward theism based on empirical observation, and it continues to inform contemporary debates.
J. L. Mackie asserted that the problem of evil constitutes a logical inconsistency within theism, arguing that the coexistence of God and evil is incompatible when God is defined as both omnipotent and wholly good (Mackie, 1955: 200). He contended that if God has the power to eliminate evil and the desire to do so, then evil should not exist. The persistence of evil, therefore, suggests that at least one of the traditional attributes of God must be reconsidered. Mackie's formulation of the logical problem of evil has become a central point of reference in philosophical discussions, prompting both criticism and defense from theistic scholars.
William L. Rowe stated that even if the existence of God and evil is not logically contradictory, the sheer magnitude and intensity of suffering in the world provide strong evidence against the existence of a benevolent and omnipotent deity (Rowe, 1979: 336). He affirmed that certain instances of suffering appear to be gratuitous, meaning that they serve no greater good or purpose that would justify their occurrence. This perspective, known as the evidential problem of evil, shifts the focus from logical inconsistency to probabilistic reasoning, thereby deepening the philosophical challenge to theism.
On the other hand, John Hick affirmed that the existence of evil can be understood within a broader theological framework that emphasizes moral and spiritual development (Hick, 1966: 255). He contended that the world serves as a “vale of soul-making,” where individuals undergo experiences that shape their character and moral virtues. According to this view, suffering is not meaningless but plays a necessary role in human growth and the fulfillment of divine purposes. Hick's approach represents a significant attempt to reconcile the existence of evil with the goodness of God, although it has been subject to criticism, particularly regarding the extent and distribution of suffering.
Furthermore, Augustine of Hippo asserted that evil is not a substance in itself but rather a privation of good, meaning that it arises from the misuse of human free will rather than from God's creation (Augustine, 1998: 45). He affirmed that God created the world good, but human beings, through their freedom, introduced moral evil into the world. This perspective has had a profound influence on Christian theology and continues to shape discussions about moral responsibility and divine justice. However, critics contend that this explanation does not adequately address natural evil, which occurs independently of human actions.
This study is set against the backdrop of these enduring philosophical debates and seeks to critically analyze the relationship between theism and the problem of evil, with a view to assessing whether theistic belief remains logically consistent and existentially meaningful in the face of persistent suffering.
1.3 Statement of Problems
Theism, as the belief in the existence of an all-powerful, all-knowing, and wholly good God, has remained a central subject within philosophical and theological discourse. However, one of the most persistent challenges confronting this belief system is the problem of evil. The existence of evil and suffering in the world appears to stand in direct tension with the traditional attributes ascribed to God. Philosophers and theologians have long grappled with reconciling how a benevolent and omnipotent deity permits the presence of moral and natural evils.
The problem becomes more pronounced when considering the logical formulation of evil, which argues that the coexistence of God and evil is contradictory. If God is all-powerful, He is able to eliminate evil, and if He is wholly good, He is willing to eliminate evil. Yet, evil persists, thereby creating a philosophical dilemma that challenges the coherence of theistic belief (Mackie, 1955: 200).
On the other hand, theistic responses to the problem of evil, often referred to as theodicies and defenses, attempt to justify or explain the presence of evil without denying God's attributes. The free will defense, for instance, posits that God grants humans the freedom to choose, and that moral evil arises as a consequence of this freedom. It is argued that a world with free will is more valuable than one without it, even if it entails the possibility of wrongdoing (Plantinga, 1974: 30).
Furthermore, the persistence of evil in the face of religious belief has significant implications for faith and practice. For many believers, unresolved questions about suffering lead to doubt, skepticism, or even rejection of theism altogether. At the same time, others find ways to reinterpret their understanding of God, emphasizing mystery, divine transcendence, or limited human comprehension. It is against this backdrop that this study seeks to critically examine theism in relation to the problem of evil, evaluating the strengths and limitations of various philosophical arguments and theistic responses, with the aim of providing a clearer understanding of whether belief in God remains rational and defensible in the presence of evil.
1.4 Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to critically examine the relationship between theism and the problem of evil by evaluating existing philosophical arguments and identifying gaps within prevailing theistic explanations.
1.5 Aim and Objectives of Study
The aim of this study is to assess the compatibility of theism with the existence of evil through critical philosophical analysis.
The specific objectives of the study are:
- To examine the traditional attributes of God within theistic belief;
- To analyze the logical and evidential formulations of the problem of evil;
- To evaluate major theistic responses such as the free will defense and soul-making theodicy;
- To identify limitations in existing philosophical explanations; and
- To propose a more coherent framework for understanding the relationship between theism and evil.
1.6 Significance of Study
It is believed that at the completion of the study the research will provide a documented evaluation of classical and contemporary arguments on the problem of evil and their relevance to theistic belief. The study will also establish verified distinctions between moral and natural evil based on existing literature.
Furthermore, the research will clarify the strengths and weaknesses of major theodicies using recognized philosophical sources. In addition, this study will contribute structured academic material for use in philosophy of religion studies.
Lastly, the study will provide a reference point for further scholarly research on the relationship between suffering and belief in God.
1.7 Scope and Delimitation of the Study
The study is limited to philosophical and theoretical discussions of theism and the problem of evil, using selected scholarly works and arguments relevant to the subject.
The study is delimited to academic analysis within the Department of Philosophy at the University of Lagos, Lagos State, and does not extend to empirical religious practices or comparative religious studies.
The research focuses specifically on major philosophical positions and does not cover all possible interpretations of evil across different religious traditions.
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