The Politics of Conservation; Using International Carbon Trading to Protect Forests and Biodiversity

1.1 Introduction

Conservation is defined as the sustainable management and protection of natural resources, including forests, wildlife, water, and biodiversity, to ensure their continued availability for present and future generations (IUCN, 2019). In the contemporary global context, conservation is not merely an environmental concern but a political, economic, and social issue that intersects with global climate governance and sustainable development. The increasing awareness of climate change, biodiversity loss, and deforestation has placed conservation at the center of international policy debates. Forests, in particular, are vital to global ecological stability as they absorb carbon dioxide, regulate hydrological cycles, and provide habitat for over 80% of terrestrial species (FAO, 2020).

As a prelude to other parts of this study, this chapter will discuss the background upon which this study was initiated, the statement of problems that led to this study, the Aim and Objectives of the study. Others are Significance of the study, Scope of work, Research hypothesis and questions, Limitation of the study and Definition of terms.

1.2 Background of Study

Conservation has long been regarded as a vital process aimed at maintaining the health and sustainability of the planet's ecosystems. According to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN, 2019), conservation involves the responsible management and protection of natural resources, including forests, wildlife, and biodiversity, to ensure their availability for future generations. Forests, in particular, are critical for ecological stability as they serve as carbon sinks, regulate water cycles, and support a vast array of species. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 2020) reported that forests cover approximately 31 percent of the world's land area and play a fundamental role in mitigating climate change by absorbing nearly one-third of global carbon dioxide emissions.

According to UNFCCC (2015), international carbon trading has emerged as one of the key mechanisms within the global climate change mitigation framework aimed at addressing environmental degradation while promoting sustainable development. It is a market-based approach that allows entities to buy and sell carbon credits to offset emissions, thereby creating financial incentives for emission reduction and forest conservation (Lederer, 2018). The logic behind this mechanism is that placing a monetary value on carbon stored in forests will encourage countries, organizations, and communities to protect forest ecosystems. The framework is largely guided by international agreements such as the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement, which establish mechanisms like the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) to facilitate carbon trading and conservation partnerships (UNFCCC, 2015).

Lederer (2018) asserted that carbon trading is a market-based approach that enables countries or corporations to offset their carbon emissions by purchasing carbon credits generated from activities that reduce or capture emissions elsewhere. This mechanism is embedded in international frameworks such as the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement, which seek to encourage sustainable environmental practices through economic incentives. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC, 2015) stated that carbon markets are essential tools for achieving emission reduction targets and fostering global cooperation on climate change mitigation.

However, the implementation of carbon trading has not been without controversy. Nelson and Phelps (2019) contended that while carbon trading is intended to promote conservation, it often reinforces global inequalities between developed and developing nations. Developed countries tend to use carbon markets as a means of offsetting emissions rather than reducing them domestically, while developing nations where most forest resources are located struggle with weak governance structures, limited technical expertise, and inadequate benefit-sharing mechanisms. Phelps, Webb, and Agrawal (2017) affirmed that programs such as Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) have sometimes resulted in the recentralization of forest governance, marginalizing local and indigenous communities who depend on forests for their livelihoods.

Bäckstrand and Lövbrand (2019) reported that the politics of conservation are deeply intertwined with global power relations, economic interests, and policy frameworks. The negotiation and implementation of carbon trading schemes are influenced by political agendas that often prioritize economic growth over ecological sustainability. On the other hand, Corbera, Estrada, and Brown (2020) asserted that when effectively managed, carbon trading has the potential to generate financial resources for conservation, enhance biodiversity protection, and contribute to local development goals. The dual perspectives on its effectiveness reveal the complex and contested nature of using economic instruments for environmental governance.

McAfee (2016) affirmed that the rise of carbon markets has also led to the commodification of nature, where forests are valued primarily for their carbon storage capacity rather than their intrinsic ecological, social, and cultural significance. Furthermore, inadequate monitoring systems, corruption, and lack of transparency in the administration of carbon funds have undermined the credibility of these mechanisms in many developing nations (FAO, 2020). This study is set against the backdrop of these global political, economic, and ecological dynamics shaping the intersection between conservation and carbon trading.

1.3 Statement of Problems

Investigation revealed that international carbon trading is designed to allow countries and corporations to offset their greenhouse gas emissions by investing in forest conservation projects elsewhere. While this system is intended to promote sustainable environmental practices, it is often criticized for reinforcing global inequalities and enabling industrialized nations to continue emitting carbon without making substantial domestic changes (Lederer, 2018).

Additionally, the politics of conservation also revolve around who controls natural resources and who defines the terms of sustainability. In many cases, indigenous and rural communities that depend on forests for survival are excluded from policy dialogues and decision-making processes. Their traditional knowledge and rights to land are often undermined by top-down conservation initiatives designed to satisfy international carbon standards (Nelson & Phelps, 2019).

Furthermore, transparency, accountability, and monitoring mechanisms in carbon trading remain weak in several participating countries. The absence of robust institutional frameworks encourages corruption and mismanagement of funds meant for conservation purposes (Phelps et al., 2017). On the other hand, proponents argue that with strong governance, carbon trading is capable of incentivizing environmental responsibility, attracting green investment, and aligning local conservation efforts with international climate goals. It is against this backdrop that this study seeks to examine the politics of conservation through the lens of international carbon trading as a mechanism for protecting forests and biodiversity.

1.4 Aim and Objectives of Study

The main aim of this study is to analyze the political and institutional dimensions of conservation through international carbon trading and evaluate how these mechanisms contribute to forest and biodiversity protection. In achieving this aim, the following specific objectives were laid out as follows:

1. To examine the political factors influencing the implementation of international carbon trading for forest and biodiversity conservation.
2. To assess how carbon trading affects equity and benefit-sharing among participating stakeholders.
3. To evaluate the institutional and governance challenges in managing carbon trading systems.
4. To identify the impact of carbon trading on local communities and their participation in conservation activities.
5. To recommend strategies for improving transparency, accountability, and inclusiveness in carbon trading frameworks.

1.5 Research Questions

The study came up with research questions so as to be able to ascertain the above stated objectives. The specific research questions for the study are stated below as follows:

• What political factors influence the implementation of international carbon trading for forest and biodiversity conservation?
• How does carbon trading affect equity and benefit-sharing among participating stakeholders?
• What institutional and governance challenges exist in managing international carbon trading systems?
• How does carbon trading impact local communities and their involvement in conservation initiatives?
• What strategies can enhance transparency, accountability, and inclusiveness in global carbon trading systems?

1.6 Research Hypothesis

In order to pursue the objective of this study, the following generalized statements have been designed to guide and aids in obtaining the result for the experiment to be conducted. For this work, the null hypothesis will be represented with H0 while the alternative hypothesis will be represented with hypothesis H1.

Hypothesis One

• H0: There is no significant relationship between international carbon trading and the protection of forests and biodiversity.
• H1: There is a significant relationship between international carbon trading and the effectiveness of forest and biodiversity conservation.

Hypothesis Two

• H0: Political and institutional challenges do not significantly affect the success of carbon trading mechanisms in conservation efforts.
• H1: Political and institutional challenges significantly affect the success of carbon trading mechanisms in conservation efforts.

1.7 Significance of Study

It is believed that at the completion of the study, the findings will provide a comprehensive analysis of how international carbon trading, as a market-based mechanism, influences forest protection, biodiversity conservation, and sustainable development, particularly in developing countries where most forest resources are located. The study will also enrich academic literature by bridging the gap between environmental governance, political science, and sustainable development.

Furthermore, the research will serve as a guide for governments and environmental organizations seeking to strengthen institutional frameworks and encourage local participation in conservation.

Lastly, the research study will provide a foundation for future research into the political economy of environmental management and global carbon finance. Also, the findings will be useful for developing countries seeking to balance environmental protection with socio-economic development.

1.8 Scope of Study

The scope of the research is focused on the political and institutional dimensions of using international carbon trading to protect forests and biodiversity within Cross River State, Nigeria. The study will cover issues related to governance, stakeholder participation, and policy implementation within the context of Nigeria's environmental and economic frameworks.

1.9 Limitations of the Study

During the course of this study, there were some problems encountered which stood as limitations to the research work. Some of the limitations include:

1. Time Constraint: The time frame given to accomplish this project was very short due to school academic calendar and it was carried out under pressure which made the researcher not to implement some necessary features.
2. Financial Constraint: Insufficient fund tends to impede the efficiency of the researcher in sourcing for the relevant materials, literature or information and in the process of data collection (internet, questionnaire and interview).
3. Initial Cooperation Delay from Respondents: A particular limitation of this work came as a result of the respondent refusal to offer their cooperation at the initial time they were contacted. This contributed in making the success of this research study difficult.

1.10 Definition of Terms

Conservation:

Conservation refers to the sustainable management of natural resources such as forests, water, and wildlife to maintain ecological balance and ensure availability for future generations (IUCN, 2019).

Carbon Trading:

Carbon trading is a market-based mechanism that allows countries or organizations to buy and sell carbon credits to offset greenhouse gas emissions and promote sustainable environmental practices (Lederer, 2018).

Biodiversity:

Biodiversity denotes the variety of life forms within an ecosystem, including species diversity, genetic diversity, and ecosystem diversity, which contribute to ecological resilience (FAO, 2020).

REDD+:

Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) is an international program under the UNFCCC designed to financially reward developing countries for reducing forest-related carbon emissions (UNFCCC, 2015).

Sustainable Development:

Sustainable development is the process of meeting current human needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (UNEP, 2018).

Governance:

Governance refers to the systems, institutions, and processes through which decisions are made and implemented to manage environmental and social resources effectively (Bäckstrand & Lövbrand, 2019).