1.1 Introduction
Nasal secretion can vary in significance, from being innocuous to being indicative of a serious problem. Microbial flora can be responsible for endogenous or exogenous infections and the presence of a foreign body in the nose is a relatively uncommon occurrence (Nelson, 1994). Some of the species of Streptococci and Staphylococci are among the most important pathogens of man and children are the more susceptible to the infection caused by them (Nelson, 1994). Unlike foreign bodies in other parts of the body that often produce noticeable symptoms, foreign bodies in the nose can go unrecognized for significant periods of time. A low incidence of common microbial flora of bacteria, fungi, viral and protozoal origin has been observed and the recent study revealed a carrier rate of 14.1% for beta-haemolytic Streptococci (Nelson, 1994).
As a prelude to other parts of this study, this chapter will discuss the background upon which this study was initiated, the statement of problems that led to this study, the Aim and Objectives of the study. Others are Significance of the study, Scope of work, Research hypothesis and questions, Limitations of the Study and Definition of technical terms.
1.2 Background of Study
Haemolytic activity is known to be a putative virulence factor contributing to disseminated candidal pathogenesis, particularly facilitating hyphal invasion in disseminated candidiasis (Odds, 1998 and Pendrak et al., 2004). The haemolytic factor of C. albicans is a mannoprotein, which has a cell-wall mannan sugar moiety structure (Watanabe et al., 1999). Infectious diseases are the world’s major threat to human health and account for almost 50,000 deaths everyday (Ahmad and Beg, 2001). The most important reason for the use of antimicrobial agents is to cure or prevent infectious diseases by using the best available agents. The study of antimicrobial susceptibility patterns of common pathogens in nasal secretions and the periodic review of such data is very essential in modern health care and the data provide a pre-emptive therapy either on the receipt of culture reports or a guide for overall course of treatment where therapy might be wholly empirical without laboratory diagnosis. This is fast becoming the norms in many developing countries as a result of dwindling resources (WHO, 2001). The benefits of the individual who deserves treatment must be weighed against the risk of emergence of resistant micro-organisms to the public (Kunin, 1988).
The choice of antimicrobial chemotherapy is initially dependent on clinical diagnosis. However, for many infections, establishing a clinical diagnosis implies determining possible microbiological causes which requires laboratory information from samples collected, preferably before antibiotic therapy is begun. Laboratory isolation and susceptibility testing of organisms make diagnosis to be established and also make drug selection more rational.
The bacteria flora of the nasal cavity has been studied extensively and exhaustively for the definition of the composition of the normal flora and for the identification of nasal carriers of certain bacterial species such as Streptococcus pyogenes or Staphylococcus aureus for the purpose of epidemiology. The major components of the normal flora of the nasals cavity are coagulase negative Staphylococci (which was reported to be present in widely varied percentage. Ranging from 12 to 81%), Staphylococcus aureus (6 to 34%) and many aerobic species, such as Streptococci of the viridans group, Meningococci, enteric bacteria and Moraxella species have been isolated occasionally, (Hannele et al., 1989). There are many different types of nasal secretion, it can be serous (clear, watery) , mucoid (yellow and mucous- like), purulent (green-yellow, thick, looks like pus) or sanguineous (bloody). Nasal secretion can be unilateral (only ever from one nostril) or bilateral (from both nostrils) which helps identify the source of the secretion. Secretion that is unilateral typically comes from the nasal passage, the sinus while bilateral secretion can arise from the pharynx, or the lower respiratory tract (trachea and lungs) secretion can also be constant or intermittent. Nasal secretion can be acute in onset within hours to a couple of days) or chronic (lasting more than 2-3 days). Nasal discharge may be the only clinical symptom or there may be other clinical symptoms as ocular discharge, enlarged lymph nodes (which is non-specific and present with many types of nasal discharge), fever, cough, abnormal noise when breathing or exercising, lethargy or weight loss. Sometimes, nasal secretion can have a foul odour, which can be specific to certain types of bacterial infections, tissues damage or sinus infections (Hannele et al., 1989).
Antimicrobial resistance is a natural biological phenomenon. It is a predictable outcome of antimicrobial use, the rapid which resistance emerges and its extent are proportional to the intensity of antimicrobial use (Lindsey, 2001). Resistance emerges in population with a high frequency of infection, due to either underlying patient status or interventions compromising host defenses, resulting in high rate or antimicrobial use. The introduction of every antimicrobial agent into clinical practices has been followed by the detection in the laboratory of strains of micro-organism which have resistant traits. Such resistance may either be a characteristic associated with the entire species or emerge in strains of normal susceptible species through mutation or genes transfer (Cheesbrough, 2006). Resistant genes encode various mechanisms, which allows micro-organisms to resist inhibitory effects of specific antimicrobials. These mechanisms offer resistance to other antimicrobials of the same class and sometimes to difference classes of antimicrobial (Coast et al., 1996). A nasal swab can be evaluated at the laboratory for some of the more common viruses and bacteria that cause upper respiratory tract infections. Nasal secretion can be benign due to wind or dust and irritation can be due to allergies, it can be indicative of an upper respiratory tract viral infection, or it can be the early stages of a more serious infection or it can be the early stages of a more serious infection.
Therefore, in Nigeria where the research was carried out, the activities that was conducted is to know the Haemolytic Activity and Streptomycin Susceptibility Profile of Bacterial Isolates Associated with Nasal Secretion.
1.3 Statement of Problems
In Nigeria, cattle are reared primarily as a source of meat. According to Kuehnert et al. (2006), Lowy (1998, 2003), Onanuga & Temedie (2011), Vandenbergh & Verbrugh (1999), Williams (1963), the nares and the skin of humans and animals may be considered as ecological niche for S. aureus colonization but this colonization does not frequently result into infection thereby tagging the bacterium a normal flora of these body parts. S. aureus colonizes the nares and the skin but if there is an abrasion, lesion or wound in these parts, S. aureus may migrate into the body or blood and cause infections. These infections are called opportunistic (staphylococcal) infections. Compared to other pathogens, S. aureus has a high tendency and proneness to become resistant to antimicrobials (Weese, 2010). This fact, coupled with the constant abuse of drugs and lack of control in the sales of antibiotics contributes to the increasing problem in multidrug resistance of S. aureus including methicillin and vancomycin which is considered as the first line of treatment against methicillin resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA).
Cuny et al. (2015), Fluit (2012), Johnson (2011) and Morgan (2008) established that methicillin resistant S. aureus (a multidrug resistant organism) may not only be a nosocomial and community acquired infection but it could also be a zoonotic infection as it can be transmitted from animal to human. The presence of multidrug resistant S. aureus in the nares of cattle poses a threat to cattle herders, butchers, beef retailers/handlers and consumers as these cattle are frequently asymptomatic carriers hence are considered ‘healthy’. This study may evaluate the prevalence of multiple antibiotic resistant livestock associated S. aureus and suggest possible control to diseases caused by multiple antibiotic resistant livestock associated S. aureus.
1.4 Aim and Objectives of Study
The aim of the study is to determine the Haemolytic Activity and Streptomycin Susceptibility Profile of Bacterial Isolates Associated with Nasal Secretion. In achieving this aim, the following specific objectives were laid out as follows:
- To determine the Bacterial Isolates Associated with Nasal Secretion in Haemolytic Activity and Streptomycin Susceptibility Profile.
- To identify bacterial species found in the upper respiratory system and lungs of apparently healthy cattle;
- To test the isolates from nasal cavity for susceptibility to selected antimicrobials.
- To isolate and identify S. aureus from nasal passage of healthy cattle by Gram staining and biochemical tests (catalase test, slide coagulase test and fermentation of mannitol).
1.5 Research Questions
The study came up with research questions so as to be able to ascertain the above stated objectives. The specific research questions for the study are stated below as follows:
- Can S. aureus be isolated and identified from nasal passage of healthy cattle?
- Are there bacterial species found in the upper respiratory system and lungs of apparently healthy cattle?
- What are the Bacterial Isolates Associated with Nasal Secretion in Haemolytic Activity and Streptomycin Susceptibility Profile?
- What are the isolates from nasal cavity for susceptibility to selected antimicrobials?
1.6 Research Hypothesis
In order to pursue the objective of this study, the following generalized statements have been designed to guide and aids in obtaining the result for the experiment to be conducted. For this work, the null hypothesis will be represented with H0 while the alternative hypothesis will be represented with hypothesis H1.
- H0: There are no significant bacterial species found in the upper respiratory system and lungs of apparently healthy cattle
- H1: There are significant bacterial species found in the upper respiratory system and lungs of apparently healthy cattle
1.7 Significance of Study
The study will provide a more recent data on multiple antibiotic resistant S. aureus and suggest possible control of livestock associated staphylococcal infections in human and the result will suggest possible control of staphylococcal infections in humans caused by livestock associated S. aureus from Nasal Secretion.
This study indicated presence of similar bacteria in both nasal cavity and lungs, thus strongly suggesting the involvement of the otherwise harmless nasal commensals in pulmonary disease causation in cattle. These nasal bacteria may find their way to the lungs in cases when the animals are stressed, as a result of the harsh conditions that the animals live in and also in the way they are used for transport and are burdened by humans.
This study will be of immense benefit to researchers who intend to know more on this study and can also be used by non-researchers to build more on their research work. This study contributes to knowledge and could serve as a guide for other study.
1.8 Scope of Study
The study focuses on the Haemolytic Activity and Streptomycin Susceptibility Profile of Bacterial Isolates Associated with Nasal Secretion.
1.9 Limitations of the Study
During the course of this study, many things militated against its completion, some of which are:
- Time Constraint: The time frame given to accomplish this project was very short due to school academic calendar and it was carried out under pressure which made the researcher not to implement some necessary features.
- Research material: availability of research material is a major setback to the scope of the study.
- Frequent power failure: This made the researcher append more money on fuel to ensure sustainable power.
- Financial Constraint: Insufficient fund tends to impede the efficiency of the researcher in sourcing for the relevant materials, literature or information and in the process of data collection (internet).
1.10 Definition of Terms
E.coli: Is an acronym for Escherichia coli which is a bacterium commonly found in the intestines of humans and other animals, some strains of which can cause severe food poisoning.
Staphylococcal: Staphylococcus (staph) is a group of bacteria. There are more than 30 types. A type called Staphylococcus aureus causes most infections. Staph bacteria can cause many different types of infections, including; skin infections which are the most common types of staph infections.
Isolates: isolate simply means cause (a person or place) to be or remain alone or apart from others.
Phytochemical: This is a substance produced mainly by plants, and these substances have biological activity.
Component: it simply means one part of a whole thing.
Antibacterial: Anything that destroys bacteria or suppresses their growth or their ability to reproduce. Heat, chemicals such as chlorine, and antibiotic drugs all have antibacterial properties.
Effect: a change which is a result or consequence of an action or other cause.
